Sentence construction is an extremely important part of English. All the vocabulary and flawless pronunciation in the world won't make what you say understandable if you cannot "build" a good sentence in English. The following three things MUST be learned and understood in order to construct an understandable, correct sentence in English.
1. A phrase is a group of words that has no subject and no verb. Although phrases do not have a subject nor a verb, they may contain a verbal such as a gerund, a participle or an infinitive.
In the woods
Listening to music (Listening in this phrase is a gerund--a verb acting as a noun)
During the winter
Not every sentence has a phrase or phrases in it, but since ALL sentences have a subject and a verb, a phrase can never be a sentence by itself. Instead of viewing a phrase as just a group of words, look at it as a single part of speech. In some case, a phrase might be replaced by just a single word. Phrases can act as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Each kind of phrase named for a part of speech (see list below) has a word within it that is used as that part of speech. Knowing this helps identify phrases and their function.
2. A dependent (subordinate) clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb, but does not form a complete thought. A subordinate clause is not a complete sentence, nor does every sentence have subordinate clauses in it.
3. An independent (main) clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb and that is a complete thought able to stand alone as a sentence. All sentences have a main clause, and some may have more, such as complex sentences. (See Clauses for more information.)
Phrases
Gerund phrases: Gerund are verbs ending in ing that act as nouns. A gerund phrase also acts as a noun and can be used anywhere a noun can be used. Sometimes other phrases are included within a gerund phrase, but the entire group of words is still considered one phrase.
Dancing the cha-cha hurt his back. (The gerund phrase is the subject. The gerund is "dancing".)
Maureen doesn't care about dressing in designer clothes to impress someone. (The gerund phrase is the object of the preposition about. the gerund is "dressing".)
Barry loves singing in the shower. (The gerund phrase is the direct object of the verb loves. The gerund is "singing".)
A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:
Correct: Swimming upstream, the salmon were anxious to spawn. (The participial phrase describes the noun salmon.)
Incorrect: Swimming upstream, we knew the salmon were anxious to spawn. (Who was swimming? This is a dangling participle because it isn't clear to what or whom it is referring.)
Correct:
Dancing in street,
she lost her shoe.
(she was dancing—the noun/pronoun that the participial phrase modifies
comes right after the phrase.)
Correct:
Incorrect:
Correct:
Kathy, needing a rest,
took a two-week vacation in Mexico.
(The participial
phrase describes
the subject
Kathy. It is set off by commas because it is a parenthetical
element--parenthetical means non-essential, not needed. The basic meaning of
the sentence is clear without this information.)
(Non-essential information)
My uncle Clark,
wearing a bowtie, met me
at the airport. (Uncle Clark
is
identified by use of his name. The fact that he wore a bowtie when he met
me at the airport isn't important in order to understand the meaning of the
sentence. "My Uncle Clark met me at the airport."
says what the sentence needs to say.)
(Non-essential information)
The man
wearing a bowtie is my Uncle Clark.
(The phrase here is essential because it identifies which man is my
uncle.) (Essential information)
Barbara,
distracted by the sirens,
drove into a tree. (That Barbara was
distracted by the sirens might be interesting, but it is not needed.)
(Non-essential information)
The toy train emitting real smoke is the one little Johnny wants for his birthday. (emitting real smoke identifies which toy train little Johnny wants.) (Essential information)
NOTE: Proper nouns (Kathy, Uncle Clark, Barbara) are considered identification, so a participial phrase that follows isn't really necessary to identify the noun and should be set-off by commas. So while you can write: "Kathy, my aunt, came to visit." The words "my aunt" are not really needed. If it is important to identify Kathy as your aunt, much better to write: "My aunt Kathy came to visit."
Susan admired the swans floating gracefully in their pond. (The participial phrase modifies the direct object swans. This phrase is NOT set off by a comma because it identifies which swans were admired. The word their also is a clue that the phrase is about the swans.)
Jack wiped up the grease smeared on his car. (This phrase is NOT set off by a comma because it identifies which grease had been smeared.)
The crowd cheered the astronauts,
excited by the successful landing.
(The phrase modifies crowd, not astronauts, so it is set off by a comma.)
The explorer carefully entered the jungle, nervously watching for danger. (The phrase modifies explorer, not jungle, so it is set off by a comma.)
Mr. Johnson loved to watch the dolphins
playing in the bay.
(The phrase modifies dolphins, not Mr. Johnson, so
it is NOT set off by commas.)
Bobby offered to sing for us, but we all talked him out of it. (The infinitive phrase is acting as a noun--the direct object)
His clever plan to dominate the world was rejected by the other criminal geniuses. (The infinitive phrase is acting like an adjective modifying plan)
Jane traveled to India to find inner peace. (The infinitive phrase is an adverb--telling why Jane traveled.)
To see him is to want him. (The first infinitive phrase is a noun acting as the subject. The second infinitive phrase is also a noun acting as a predicate nominative, (That is a word or phrase that follows a linking verb--in this case is--and defines or re-names the subject).
Prepositional phrases: A prepositional phrase has a preposition, a noun or pronoun which is the object of that preposition, and sometimes some adjectives that describe the noun or pronoun. Most of the time, a prepositional phrase answers where or when (under the house, about two hours, in the pool, at six o'clock). Prepositional phrases can be introductory elements and usually need a comma following them. Short phrases often do not need the comma, however. It used to be that one NEVER ended a sentence with a preposition, but it is more acceptable now except in academic or very formal writing. Prepositional phrases are usually used as adverbs or adjectives, although sometimes you will see them used as an interjection or a noun.
When the hurricane struck, they went to the basement. (The prepositional phrase is an adverb telling where.)
The couple arrived in the middle of the first act. (These two prepositional phrases are adverbs telling when. The second phrase, of the first act modifies the first phrase, in the middle. in the middle modifies arrived.)
Peter's ease with his boss is enviable. (The prepositional phrase is an adjective describing ease.)
"By golly you're sassy!" said Grandma. (The prepositional phrase is an interjection.)
After midnight will be the best time to see the comet. (The prepositional phrase is the subject here.)
Many television shows have been developed featuring the "real life" theme.
Many television shows featuring the "real life" theme have been developed .
An interesting book was once written explaining the natural habitat of orangutans.
An interesting book explaining the natural habitat of orangutans was once written.
Notice in the examples above that by putting the modifying phrase after the verb, it gives that phrase emphasis.
The gossip is spreading that they are aliens from a far-off galaxy.
The gossip that they are aliens from a far-off galaxy is spreading.
When this noun phrase isn't split--see how awkward the sentence is? You almost feel out of breath after you read it!
The only time you may safely use many nouns together is when you have them in a series, separated by commas.
We packed suitcases for the week’s camping trip and included sweaters, flashlights, socks, snack food, underwear, medicine, insect repellent, and emergency flares.
But be careful of using too many nouns, one after another, as in this sentence:
The Fish and Game Department had to address the wildlife management resources seminar question at their annual meeting.
It is not unusual for one noun to modify another (desk lamp, cake pan, dirt bike), but when we have a lot of nouns used as modifiers with no break, it can be confusing as to what is modifying what. When you have a sentence like the one shown above, you need to rewrite it using phrases and clauses to make your meaning clear.
At their annual meeting, the Fish and Game Department had to address the question regarding the seminar on resources for wildlife management.
There are certain kinds of noun phrases that are called vocatives. A vocative is a name or alternate name of a person being directly addressed. "Martha, call your boss at once." "Darling (an alternate way to address someone), will you take out the garbage?" A vocative is usually one word, but it can also be a noun phrase. It is ALWAYS set off by commas, since it is a parenthetical element. Vocatives can show up almost anywhere in a sentence, but be sure that the name you are putting commas around is truly a direct address, not just a name in the sentence.
Becky, wash the dishes. (Becky is a vocative. She is being spoken to directly.)
I told Becky to wash the dishes. (Becky is not a vocative. There is no direct address)
Various sources define four kinds of vocatives: Remember these must be used in sentences showing someone directly addressing another person.
a) Pronouns: You as in: "You, come over here!" "You with the smirk on your face, sit down!" ( other words may be added to you). This is not a polite was to speak to people and is never used in formal speaking or writing. Also indefinite pronouns (someone, somebody, anyone, anybody): "Anybody, help!" "Get the police, somebody."
b) Appellatives (what we call people) of endearment: Darling, Sweetie, Honey, etc.
"Sweetheart, please hand me the newspaper."
Words of respect: Your Honor, Your Grace, Sir, Miss, etc.
"Miss, would you please remove your hat so I can see the screen?"
Words that show someone's profession or status: Officer, Professor, Doctor, etc.
"I'm sorry, Officer, I didn't know I was speeding."
c) Single names, with or without a title: Sheila, Jerry, Uncle Joe, Mrs. Robinson, Captain Johnson.
"Grandma, will you bake some cookies tonight?"
d) Nominal clause: "Whoever is doing that, please quit!"
Her lips chapped from the wind, Sunny couldn't play her flute. (You need to add an auxiliary verb like were or being to the verb chapped to make the phrase an independent clause.)
Her dress torn from the accident, Bea and Cecilia went home. (Whose dress? An absolute phrase modifies the entire sentence, so be careful how you construct your sentence.)
More absolutes:
Playtime nearly finished, the twins ran for the swings.
Jason climbed the stairs, his sweater tied around his waist.
His expertise as a golfer acknowledged, Will decided to try kick boxing.
Winter (being) over, the birds begin to return to Lake Placid.
(Having been) Rich for generations, the Rockefellers couldn't accept shopping at garage sales.
An absolute phrase that comes after a modified noun adds focus to the meaning of the main clause. This type of absolute phrase can function as an adjective phrase, a noun phrase, or a prepositional phrase. Very often, the information in an absolute phrase is the most important part of the sentence. The absolute phrase adds details and descriptions that really give meaning and depth to the sentence.
The child hid, cowering in the corner, her heart beating wildly, her hands shaking in fright.
The students, their pencils well-sharpened, waited for the teacher to start the test .
Santa Claus came down the chimney, his pack on his back and his pipe in his pocket.
The hungry travelers realized chocolate-covered ants were a bad choice for dinner--funny tasting.
Poor old Dave--so afraid to make mistakes--is terribly shy.
Appositive phrases: An appositive renames or adds detail to the word right before it. Appositive phrases act as nouns, They describe, identify, or explain a noun or a pronoun or a noun phrase. An appositive and an appositive phrase are usually parenthetical elements (extra information not needed for the sentence's meaning) and are set off by commas. If they are needed to complete the meaning of the sentence, they are not set off by commas, of course. Appositives are easy to identify because they are always right after the noun they are describing.
My mother, a strong-minded lady, never let anyone take advantage of her. (a strong-minded lady is extra information--not needed in this sentence.)
Norma, the woman of his dreams, jilted him for an actor.
The Rolling Stones, a rock group that has been popular for over 40 years, still draws big crowds at their concerts. (Notice that an appositive phrase can contain other types of phrases within it. Regardless of the type of other phrases, they are all part of the appositive phrase and this entire phrase is still functioning as a noun.)
The films Jurassic Park, Alien, and Predator are better than the sequels. (Jurassic Park, Alien, and Predator are appositives--not appositive phrases, but they provide needed information and are not set off by commas.)
The appositive phrases illustrated so far have all been noun phrases, but other types of phrases can be used as appositives also. Remember, an appositive and appositive phrase renames or elaborates on the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase right before it.
Angela's favorite hobby, collecting seashells, offers her a lot of fun. (A gerund phrase is the appositive.)
Cuthbert's life-long dream, to be a legend in his own time, may not become reality. (An infinitive phrase is the appositive.)
Appositives can be used with more than just the subject of a sentence:
Romeo and Juliet met in a very romantic setting, a moonlit balcony. (a moonlit balcony renames setting)
The fire left an enormous amount of debris--brick, ashes, and half-burned timbers. (The appositive phrase renames or identifies debris.)
As you can see by all the examples above, a phrase can be turned into a sentence by adding an independent clause and appropriate punctuation or conjunctions (Conjunctions are words which link words, groups of words, phrases or clauses in a sentence.)
Once you understand how phrases work, it becomes easier to write with them. You will be able to use fewer words when you start using phrases. Using too many words when you speak or write is boring for the listener and is a common error for both non-native AND native speakers. You will also be able to manipulate your phrases to create emphasis. For example: With prepositional phrases, you can often use the object of the preposition as an adjective.
His problem with studying was becoming serious. becomes: His studying problem was becoming serious.)
Appositive phrases can be changed also.
My mother, a strong-minded lady, never let anyone take advantage of her. You can say "My strong-minded mother never let anyone take advantage of her." thus getting rid of the phrase altogether. You can also use the appositive as the subject:
The films Jurassic Park, Alien, and Predator are better than the sequels. ( try "Jurassic Park, Alien, and Predator are better than the sequels.")
Verbal phrases are harder to change, but as you get to recognize and understand them you will be able to play with them and learn how to get your meaning across with the fewest possible words. Absolute phrases are also difficult to change. Consider writing a separate sentence if needed for clarity.
If you can learn the differences and the uses of phrases, it will help you in writing and understanding English, as well as giving emphasis, detail, and interest to your sentences. If you can't remember the type of phrase, that isn't as important as recognizing that it is a phrase and knowing how part of speech that phrase functions in the sentence.
A Summary:
Prepositional phrases usually function adverbs or adjectives.
Appositive phrases function only as nouns.
Verbal (gerunds, infinitives, participles) phrases function as nouns, adverbs or adjectives.
Absolute phrases function as adverbs modifying entire sentences.