| Dependent Clauses | Independent Clauses |
| Adjective Clauses | Joining Clauses |
| Adverb Clauses | |
| Elliptical Clauses | to Learning English |
Sentence construction is an extremely important part of English. All the vocabulary and flawless pronunciation in the world won't make what you say understandable if you cannot "build" a good sentence in English. The following three things MUST be learned and understood in order to construct an understandable, correct sentence in English.
1. A phrase is a group of words that has no subject and no verb. Although phrases do not have a subject nor a verb, it's possible for them to contain a verbal such as a gerund, a participle or an infinitive. Not every sentence has a phrase or phrases in it, but since ALL sentences have a subject and a verb, a phrase can never be a sentence by itself. Instead of viewing a phrase as just a group of words, look at it as a single part of speech. In some cases, a phrase might be replaced by just a single word. Phrases can act as nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
2. A dependent (subordinate) clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb, but does not form a complete thought. A subordinate clause is not a complete sentence, nor does every sentence have a subordinate clause in it.
3. An independent (main) clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb and is a complete thought able to stand alone as a sentence. All sentences have a main clause, and some sentences, such as complex sentences, may have more.
Clauses
A clause has a subject and a verb. There are two types of clauses: dependent (also called a subordinate clause) and independent (also called the main clause). A dependent clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. It is dependent upon the rest of the sentence in order to have meaning. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. You can change an independent clause into a dependent clause by preceding the clause with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun.
He is fantastically wealthy. (This an independent clause--a complete sentence.)
Since (because) he is fantastically wealthy, he thinks he can get his own way all the time. (adding the subordinating conjunction since makes the original clause into a dependent clause--unable to stand alone as a complete sentence.)
Clauses can be restrictive (essential) or nonrestrictive (nonessential). A nonrestrictive clause isn't needed for the sentence to have meaning. If it is left out, the intended thought of the sentence remains. Nonrestrictive clauses are often set off by commas in a sentence.
Nonrestrictive: The concert, which began quietly, soon became so loud that I got a headache.
Restrictive: The concert that began quietly soon became so loud that I got a headache.
Nonrestrictive: The cheerleader, who wore the blue blouse, fell over doing a cartwheel.
Restrictive: The cheerleader that wore the blue blouse fell over doing a cartwheel and cried
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The cake, which Mom baked, was delicious. (The information about who baked the cake isn't necessary for the sentence to make sense. The cake was delicious makes sense without which Mom baked, so the commas and the word which is used, making this a nonrestrictive clause.
THAT
That is used to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. It serves the purpose of a conjunction in that instance. The word that may often be left out with no changes in meaning to the sentence. You need to determine whether the sentence is clearly understood when you leave out the word that in introducing a subordinate clause.
Ronnie heard (that) his car was stolen.
Michelle thought (that) her neighbors were gossiping about her.
Helga feels (that) she said nothing rude to the salesman.
As you can see, those sentences make perfect sense with or without the word that. If you think leaving out the word that makes a break in the smoothness a sentence, use a comma where the word that would have been.
I’m telling you (that) I don’t want to go there anymore.
The biggest obstacle is (that) no one wants to spend money on repairs.
If you think the sentence sounds as good and its meaning is clearly understood without using the word that, leave it out. There are three times when the word that should be used:
1. If there is a time element mentioned between the verb and the clause:
Joshua told us last week that he was going on vacation this month.
2. If the verb of the clause is further into the clause, rather than close to the beginning:
The newspaper stated that some factions of the right-wing resistance formed over the last few months were now beginning to grow disillusioned with their leader’s agenda. (The verb were beginning is far from the subject of the clause--factions.)
3. If writing the word that a second time makes the sentence more clear as to who said or did what:
The fireman said that the frequency of home fires was increasing and that the sale of smoke detectors had fallen off. (Did the fireman mean that sales had fallen off, or was the increase in fires causing the drop in sales? The second that clarifies the sentence.)
LIKE or AS?
The word like can be used in more formal writing when you are pointing out similarities:
In some ways, this theory is like Einstein’s.
In the following example, such as is a better choice of words:
The district has many interesting historic sites, such as the Lincoln Library, the home of the first territorial governor, and the first ice cream factory.
Dependent clauses can function as nouns or as various modifiers in a sentence. Since dependent clauses have a subject and a verb, it is sometimes easy to make the mistake of thinking that you have a complete sentence, when it isn't a complete sentence at all. A dependent clause standing alone is called a sentence fragment. Here are some examples of sentence fragments. In properly-written sentences, these groups of words would not end with a period (full stop), because they aren't complete sentences:
After the ball was over.
Because I'm almost finished with school.
Since you left town.
Before he shaved.
Because you asked nicely.
To make these dependent clauses into sentences, you need to combine it with an independent clause and appropriate punctuation and/or conjunctions.
After the ball was over, we all went out to breakfast.
Because I'm almost finished with school, I can take a few vacation days to relax.
The place hasn't been the same since you left town.
Marty brushed his teeth before he shaved.
Because you asked nicely, I'll help you clean your room.
There are three basic kinds of dependent clauses:
1. Adverb clauses: An adverb clause functions as an adverb and answers when?, where?, why?, with what goal/result?, and under what conditions? If an adverb clause comes before the main (independent) clause, put a comma after the adverb clause. If the adverb clause comes after the main clause, don't use a comma.
When we decide on the best route, we will drive home. (The adverb clause answers when will we leave?)
Cameron felt like dancing so he could show his sister the new steps he learned. (The adverb clause answers why does Cameron feel like dancing?)
Notice that an adverb clause can substitute for an adverb:
Meet me here. (adverb) Meet me where I am now. (adverb clause)
He left yesterday. (adverb) He left when he had planned to leave. (adverb clause)
Adverb clauses are preceded by subordinating conjunctions . These conjunctions can be organized according to the questions they answer. (see Conjunctions)
For example:
Time: before, after, when, until, while, as soon as, as long as
Before Zach played a song, he asked for requests. (when were requests asked for ?)
Your father will be hungry as soon as he gets home. (when will father be hungry?)
Place: where, wherever
Where you go, I will follow. (where will I follow ?)
They will travel wherever there are safe campgrounds. (where will they travel ?)
Purpose/Effect: so that, in order that, so, in order to
Thomas needs a better job so that he can take his girlfriend to an expensive restaurant. (Thomas needs the job why?)
You must learn your clauses in order to improve your English. (You must learn why?)
Cause: because, since
You are always broke because you spend too much! (the cause of being broke? spending)
Since you left, I am lonely all the time. (why lonely? the cause is you left)
Condition: if, unless, provided that, except
If Donna still has pain tomorrow, she needs to see the doctor. (under what condition should Donna see the doctor? if she has pain)
The party will be canceled unless it stops raining. (The party will be canceled why? if it kept raining)
Contrast/Concession: although, though, even though, despite, in spite of
Although she hid the money, she forgot to hide the jewels. (A contrast between doing one thing and not doing another)
Steve enjoyed sky-diving even though he shook for days afterwards. (A contrast: enjoyed/shook (a sign of fear or anxiety)
Other important things to know about Adverb Clauses:
1. A sentence with an adverb clause needs an independent clause in order to be a complete sentence. This is sometimes confusing for a person learning English. You may think that because a dependent clause has a verb, it is a complete sentence. A dependent clause is not a complete sentence.
Before we left for the airport, we ate breakfast. (two main verbs--left in the dependent clause and ate in the independent clause)
If you change the adverb clause to a phrase, that may help lessen the confusion:
2. You can change an independent clause to a dependent clause when joining two independents by using a subordinating conjunction. You can also leave the independent clauses as they are, and use a coordinating conjunction to join them (and, but, yet, etc.). By using subordination, you can add interest and variety to your sentences.
2. Adjective clauses: Adjective clauses are used just as adjectives are: to modify nouns and pronouns. Adjective clauses can begin with a relative pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, and of which), and sometimes with a relative adverb (where, when, and why). This is why adjective clauses are sometimes known as relative clauses. Adjective clauses answer the question which? or which one?
Is this the shirt that matches his trousers? (The clause points out which shirt it is.)
Joseph needs to find the person who stole his hubcaps. (The clause indicates which person Joseph needs to find. )
Just like other clauses, adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive.
Herbie, who is studying to be a brain surgeon, has very steady hands. (nonrestrictive = nonessential)
The car that is painted purple with green stripes probably won't sell. (restrictive = essential)
An adjective clause generally follows the noun or pronoun that it modifies. An adjective generally precedes the noun or pronoun that it modifies.
The car that is painted purple with green stripes probably won't sell. (adjective clause follows car)
The green-striped purple car probably won't sell. (adjective before car)
For informal speech or writing, you can leave out the relative pronoun (who, whom, that, which) when it is not the subject of the clause. In formal speaking and writing, the relative pronoun should be included.
Formal: She thought that she would be ill.
Informal: She thought she would be ill.
Formal: We are lucky to have neighbors whom we like.
Informal: We are lucky to have neighbors we like.
Note: Even in informal speech and writing, you should keep the relative pronoun in the sentence if leaving it out would confuse the reader/listener. After verbs such as learn, remember, believe, know, which are called cognitive verbs, a relative pronoun is important because it shows that someone knows, remembers, etc., the information of the entire clause, not just the word following the relative pronoun.
Joe knows that tomorrow is payday.
Andrea remembers that Corey speaks several languages.
That and which clauses can be confusing. The reader or listener can become confused if a sentence is too wordy, having too many clauses/meanings. Try using adjectives or adjective phrases or an adverbial clause, instead. This technique can also add interest and variety to your speech or text.
Libby wanted the television that was in the mahogany console. (Adjective clause)
Better: Libby wanted the mahogany console television. (Adjective)
That Libby chooses her own furnishings assures that she gets exactly what she wants. (Adjective clause)
Better: By choosing her own furnishings, Libby gets exactly what she wants. (Participial phrase)
The sofa, which is beige and mint green, might show dirt too easily. (Adjective clause)
Better: Since the sofa is beige and mint green, it might show the dirt too easily. (Adverbial clause)
3. Noun clauses: Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. They take the place of nouns in other clauses or phrases and can be used just as a noun is used (subject, direct object, object of preposition, object of verbal phrase, appositive, etc.) Noun clauses are preceded by a relative pronoun (that, the fact that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, and of which), or by a subordinating conjunction (that, whether). These clauses tell who/whom? or what?.
Richard hopes that the new Harry Potter book will be published soon. (Noun clause as a direct object)
Whoever glued my computer mouse to the table has to confess. (Noun clause as a subject)
Roberta thought that her banker was an alien from another planet. (Noun clause as a direct object)
Daisy Mae didn't care for the way Georgians cooked potatoes. (Noun clause as an object of the preposition)
Hoping that Mark would call, Greta waited for hours. (Direct object of a participial phrase)
Jack, who was the best candidate for the job, was made vice-president. (Noun clause as an appositive)
Oscar's greatest fear is that his gorgeous curly hair will fall out. (Noun clause as a subject complement)
When you can recognize what a noun clause is, the next step is to decide if it improves the flow of the sentence, or not. Can it be changed to a noun or to some type of phrase to make it sound better?
Better: The lengthy, complicated courtship rituals of dinosaurs might explain why they are extinct. (Noun clause changed to adjectives and a noun and now acts as the subject of the sentence.)
Maria understood [that] learning English could be one of the hardest tasks [that] she ever undertook.
Although usually [she was] gracious to customers, today Cassie snapped at them irritably.
Joseph believed [that] he could sing better than I [could sing].
During July, the whole family likes to have swimming parties; in October, [the whole family likes to have] touch football games. (Notice the semicolon separating the clauses. This is because two independent clauses have been joined: During July, the whole family likes to have swimming parties and in October, [the whole family likes to have] touch football games. Even though some words have been omitted in the second clause, those words are still there in the mind of the reader. They are understood by the reader or listener.)
When a comparison is made in a sentence using than or as, the verb in the clause that comes after those words is often omitted. If a pronoun follows than or as, be sure you are using the proper form of that pronoun, if you're the writer. Read the sentence out loud, including the words you are going to omit, to see if it makes sense. If someone gave you the sentence to read, it can be harder to determine which pronoun form should be used. The writer needs to make the meaning clear from other sentences.
| Annie is shyer than Cal [is]. | Cal is the subject of the clause Cal is. |
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Barry is shorter than Martin [is]. |
In all these sentence, the second clause (beginning with than or as) has a pronoun as its subject. Therefore, the nominative case (I, she, he, they, we) is used, even though the verb is left out. It may sound strange to your ear, but it is correct. |
| He loves you more than I [do]. | |
| Perry sings as well as they [do]. | |
| Lilly Ann eats more fruit than I [eat]. | |
| They stayed awake longer than we [did]. |
Be careful! A comparison statement may have words left out before the pronoun instead of after it. If that is true, the pronoun is the direct object of the missing verb. The way to identify these is to notice the form of pronoun. If the pronoun is me, him, her, them, us, the words have been left out before the pronoun. We do have a problem with the pronoun you, though. Since you is the same form whether it's a subject or a direct object, it might be better not to use elliptical clauses when you is the ending word.
He loves you more than [he loves] me.
Joseph likes dogs more than [he likes] her.
The subject and verb can be removed from adverb clauses.
If Desmond were a poet, he would spend long hours in his rented room starving. (Adverb clause)
If [Desmond were] a poet, he would spend long hours in his rented room starving. (Elliptical Clause)
Words omitted from a clause can be shown by using a comma only if the omitted words are clearly understood.
Peter enjoys soccer; Logan ping pong. (makes no sense)
Peter enjoys soccer; Logan, ping pong. (The comma shows that the word enjoys is missing)
An independent clause has a subject and a verb. It is the main clause in any sentence, and needs no other clause or phrase to have meaning. When a sentence has only one clause, it is always an independent clause. (In the sentences below, the subject and main verb are italicized.)
Stuart and Connie signed a pre-nuptial agreement stating they would not demand any previously-owned assets from each other, in case of divorce. (One independent clause)
Connie's mother disapproved of Stuart's miserly ways. (of. . . is a prepositional phrase. It's one independent clause)
Since hearing of the agreement, the whole family has stopped talking to Stuart. (One introductory phrase, one clause)
Stuart's ways with money and stingy nature caused him to lose more than one girl friend in the past. Connie admires and adores him, despite his flaws. (Remember, there are compound subjects and compound verbs. These are still considered the subject or the verb. Both of the preceding sentences each have only one clause.)
Before the wedding day, Connie made her dress, baked the cake, ordered the flowers, and reserved the church to save money. (one subject, four verbs, and just one clause and one introductory phrase)
If there is more than one subject, and each has its own verb, and if there is a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) preceded by a comma between them, then you have more than one independent clause. Just because there is a coordinating conjunction present doesn't mean there is another independent clause there.
Johnny often visited the Museum of Natural History, but he had never seen the exhibit of dinosaurs on the fourth floor. (Two clauses, both have a subject and a main verb, separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction--but. Both clauses are independent.)
Daphne has visited the museum and has seen the dinosaurs several times. (Two verbs, but they have the same subject. Even though and is a coordinating conjunction, there are not two independent clauses in this sentence--only one.)
Patrick plays the guitar well, yet he is hesitant to play before others. (Two subjects, each with its own verb, separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. This means there are two independent clauses.)
Sidney also plays well and loves to play for others. (Two verbs, but they share the same subject. There's only one clause in that sentence.)
Independent clauses can be connected to dependent clauses with a subordinating conjunction.
If Jasmine ever visits the United States, she can depend on receiving a welcome from CC and Annie. ("If . . ." is the dependent clause joined to the independent clause. if is a subordinating conjunction.)
Ethan remembered to note specific instructions on the blueprint before the contractor started the job. (The dependent clause starts with the subordinating conjunction before.)
Shirley was so surprised by Warren's lack of kitchen skills that she decided to give him cooking lessons.
Independent clauses can be used with either restrictive or nonrestrictive dependent clauses.
The student who practiced speaking English improved the most. (The restrictive dependent clause is in the middle of the independent clause.)
After the ball was over, the carriage that brought Cinderella to the castle turned into a pumpkin. (restrictive dependent clause in the middle of the independent clause. The sentence begins with another dependent clause.)
When did you find the woman who stole your purse? (Subject and verb in the independent clause change positions in a question, but it's still an independent clause with a restrictive dependent clause modifying woman.)
Did Billy recognize Naomi, who used to live next door to him? (nonrestrictive clause following an independent clause.)
Never join two independent clauses with a comma! This is a called a run-on sentence (or a comma splice) and is never correct!
Here are solutions for the problem of writing run-on sentences:
Roslyn wanted to tell the newspaper about the time she was abducted by aliens, but her friends tried to dissuade her. (Independent clauses separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.)
Roslyn wanted to tell the newspaper about the time she was abducted by aliens. Her friends tried to dissuade her. (two separate sentences, each one ending with a period.)
Roslyn wanted to tell the newspaper about the time she was abducted by aliens; her friends tried to dissuade her. (use a semicolon to separate two closely related independent clauses.)
Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination, subordination, and the use of a semicolon. (See Conjunctions)
We could go happily through life never joining independent clauses to anything, or never arranging sentences into any pattern except subject, verb, object, but this would make for very boring people to listen to and very boring books to read. "See Spot run. See Spot jump. See Spot chase the ball." Or how about "Rosemarie is smart. Rosemarie is pretty. Rosemarie is graceful." (Those sentences are very boring to read, or to hear!!)
It is much more interesting to say "Spot runs, jumps, and chases the ball every morning." "Rosemarie is a graceful, pretty woman, who is also smart."
1. Coordination means joining single words, or groups of words, or clauses by using coordinating conjunctions. They must always join similar elements (subject + subject, verb phrase + verb phrase, or sentence + sentence).
Heckle and Jeckle, the cartoon magpies, loved to tease the cat, and they especially loved to aggravate the dog.
Heckle enjoyed dropping things on his victims, but Jeckle preferred to shout insults.
2. Subordination means turning one of the clauses into a subordinate element by using a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun. When a clause begins with a subordinating word, it becomes a dependent (subordinate) clause because it depends on a independent clause to give it meaning. Independent clauses can also be turned into phrases, that is, without a subject or without a verb.
As you can see in these examples, there are many ways to arrange the information in sentences.
Eddie liked to cycle. His friends bought him a bike helmet.
Because Eddie liked to cycle, his friends bought him a bike helmet.
Eddie's friends bought him a bike helmet because he liked to cycle.
Saul is Eddie's best friend. Saul suggested that gift to the other friends.
Saul, who is Eddie's best friend, suggested that gift to the others.
Eddie's best friend Saul suggested that the others buy Eddie a bike helmet.
3. Semicolons are used to join independent phrases without using a coordinating conjunction. A conjunctive adverb may or may not be used. Don't overuse semicolons. The clauses you join with them should be closely related and close in length and importance.
Ernie has a powerful speaking voice; he can be heard with ease in a crowd.
Ernie speaks with conviction; he is never overbearing.